Have you ever wondered....?
Does my fantasy setting make
actual economic sense? Can there really be cities with 200,000 people before the advent of indoor plumbing? Are my taxes ridiculously draconian?
No? Just me?
Well, imagine you
had asked those question, but doubted ChatGPT's answer. In a fit of pique, you turned to World Anvil thinking (correctly!) you could find satisfaction here. Well, WONDER NO MORE! Below, I provide the barely readable summary of a mad weekend of information harvesting from the University of Kansas library in eye-watering detail. Think of this as a collection of medieval trivia, but not a comprehensive study. It was all compiled in a heavily caffeinated 48-hour span, after all.
References:
- Duby, Georges. Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West. Translated by Cynthia Postan. University of South Carolina Press, 1990.
- McGarry, David. Medieval History and Civilization. Macmillan, 1976.
- Nicholas, David. The Evolution of the Medieval World. Longman, 1992.
- Tierney, Brian. Western Europe in the Middle Ages, 300-1475. Knopf, 1974.
Nota bene: 1£ = 20 shillings (s) = 240 pence (d). 1 penny (d) = 4 farthings (f). (Don't shoot the messenger.)
Manorialism
Breakdown of Population
80 - 90% of the rural population was engaged in some form of farming activity. The Domesday Book of 1086 breaks down the population as follows:
| 12% |
freemen (holding 60-120 acres = 1 ‘hide’) |
| 30% |
cottars (renting 1-5 acres)
|
| 35% |
villeins (renting 15-30 acres) |
| 9% |
slaves(1) |
We assume that the other 14% of the population was engaged in religious or professional activities, or were of the aristocracy. Towns account for less than 30% of the total population, and of course many of these would also be engaged in farming activities. Earlier, 95% of the population lived in the countryside. The Domesday Book puts 40,000 out of 1.5 million living in England at the time in towns (about 27%). This seems the better estimate. Early towns were about 20 hectares in size.
Town size averaged from 1,000 to 1,500 in 10th century Italy, with the largest towns in France reaching 7 or 8 thousand. 11th century London had only 8,000 inhabitants. By the late 13th century, Milan had 200,000 citizens. Some key segments of interest are:
| Population |
Percent |
Description |
| 40,000 |
20% |
able to bear arms in time of war |
| 1,120 |
0.5% |
doctors of law |
| 1,500 |
0.75% |
notaries |
| 10 |
1 per 20K |
hospitals |
And the rest are, well, you know...the rest.
Other estimates put the percent of the population under 15 years of age at 40, and suppose that there were slightly fewer men than women in the urban areas, but slightly more men than women in the rural areas.
The
polyptyque of Irminon shows that of 10,026 individuals, 5,316 were children and 4,710 were adults. According to this breakdown, children account for 53% of the population. Since this population is divided into 2,088 households, there were almost 3 children per family. Of 80 families listed in one Burgundian document, 384 were children and 304 were adults (56% children, 8.6 people per family). Details are as follows:
| 1 child |
20 families |
20% |
| 2 children |
22 families |
27.5% |
| 3 children |
16 families |
20% |
| 4 or more children |
22 families |
27.5% |
The death rate for this population is 40-70 per 1,000, meaning that 40 to 70 persons out of every thousand will die in the course of a year. This corresponds to a life expectancy of about 25 to 35 years.
Organization of the Manorial Lands
The typical manor had 750 - 1,500 acres of land. One acre or ‘arpent’ was considered the amount of land that 1 team of oxen could plow in a day. The ploughland was organized in strips of 1 furlong (220 yards or the amount a team could plow before needing a rest) by 4 rods (22 yards). It took 72 furrows to plow a 4-rod acre. This means that a furrow was 11 inches wide. This manor would be inhabited by 15-30 peasant families, which the Encyclopedia Britannica equates to an annual income of about £20 in the 12th c. It was estimated that one man and his family (an average of 5 in the
polyptyque of Irminon) could survive on a ‘virgate,’ which varied in size from 15-45 acres depending on output. Later, this amount drops in France, where it’s called a ‘quartier,’ to 7 to 10 acres.
Various estimates put the land owned by the lord of the manor (called demesne land) at ¼ to ½ of the total land of the manor, the rest being peasant holdings and waste or forest. But peasant lands had about four times as much ploughland (‘arable’) as the demesne did. Large manors had a smaller percentage of demesne lands (25 - 30%) and smaller manors had about 40 - 50% demesne lands. A constant of about 25% of the land was wasted. The lands of the typical manor were physically distributed between:
| ploughland, arable or field |
20 - 40% |
| meadows for hay |
5 -15% |
| pasture, waste/wetland for fodder, forest for hunting, wood gathering, swine husbandry |
40 -75% |
Water sources such as springs, streams, ponds, etc., also provided fishing rights for a price. Hand dug well provided additional sources of water where surface sources were insufficient or non-existent.
Standard buildings on a manor include the manor hall, peasant cottages (usually clumped together near a cross-roads which eventually led to nearby manors), a parish building, stables, granaries, wine-press, mill, bakehouse, smithy, kitchens, breweries, etc.
"The manor hall was usually made of wood, but some rich manors had partial or total stone construction. Size varied, but smallest had a hall and bower (bedchamber) with a cellar and probably a porch. Associated out-buildings for all manors included huts or cottages for servants, the kitchen and the bakehouse.
The peasant cottages were small, one-roomed buildings averaging 4 by 7 meters. The animals stayed in the room with the family. Some of the wealthier freemen might have two rooms, one for animals one for humans. Usually 1 story, made of wood with little or no stone. Some circular huts with sunken floors were popular until 1000AD but not after. The roofs of these buildings came nearly to the ground.
Parish buildings typically included a church, a parsonage, a cemetery, and accompanying fields. Besides the minister, some of his servants or men would live in a nearby cottage or in the parsonage. The amount of land accorded to the parish varied with the wealth of the parish and the size of the manor community served. In the
polyptyques, one parish church is described as having one sixth as much arable as the lord’s demesne, with attendant rights to meadow and pasturage.
Mills and bakehouses brought a lot of money into the manor’s coffers. The
polyptyques list 8 of 22 estates as having water mills, but wind mills and hand mills (more costly to operate) were also prevalent, and it is likely that every manor would have some way to grind grain. One mill was held in rent from the lord for 25s for four years. One mill grinds for approximately 100 acres of arable. In another region, one mill grinds for over 1500 acres of arable, and gives about 5.5 marks (73s 4d) per year. Another two, also serving 1500 acres of arable each, owe 285 bushels of wheat per year. At a rate of 5d per bushel, this comes to 5£ 18s 8d per year. It seems clear that the mill’s capacity depended upon the number of grinding stones within (from 1 to 6, 6 being the full mill). Grant that one full mill should be able to handle service to 1500 acres, and that the rent on a mill should be 10% of it’s projected profit, then a mill will grind approximately 15,000 bushels which will gain the mill 11, 520d per year or about 3 farthings per bushel to grind."
Agriculture and Consumption
The best farmers could expect about 10 bushels per acre seeded with 2 bushels of grain. Average was about 6 or even 4 per 2 bushels of seed. After introduction of the 3-field system, improved plows, yokes for oxen to better harness their strength and improved irrigation and seed selection, production increased to 7:1. Modern techniques yield 15 or 20:1 on the same soils. Spring crops were usually barley, spelt and oats, and the spring planting was larger. The winter planting was wheat or rye, and since this was smaller and these grains also had a smaller yield, these grains were more expensive.
About 1 pig per 10 acres of woodland seems average. A town of 3,000 required about 1,000 tons of grain per year, which would require about 4,500 acres of sown arable, or 9,000 acres total (to leave half fallow). Estimate, therefore, about 3 acres per individual, or 667lbs of grain.
The amount of food eaten in addition to the basic cereal (bread or porridge) was a determining factor of wealth—the more wealth, the more additional food. The head of a household would frequently eat secondary food worth twice the plowman’s, and his knights would eat about 2/3 this amount. The secondary food cost is about 2 and a half times the basic bread cost.
Feudal Obligations
Up to 3 days per week (week work ransom lord, knight eldest son, marry eldest daughter.
Vassals owed military service, but only up to 40 days for an offensive campaign. For defensive campaigns, unlimited service. Vassals later paid money in return for military service. This is called scutage or shield money. As the population rose, there were more mercenaries available and cavalry lost its importance. In the past, each 600 acres or so had to provide one cavalryman.
Lords permitted subinfeudation and other forms of subdivision for a fee. Some fiefs were not actually land, but rather rights, such as the right to collect tolls or offices.
Serfs’ obligations included: 3 days per week of week-work, plus boon days during planting and harvesting (they are provided with food and drink during this time), and corvees for infrastructure repair and construction.
Tithes were usually 10% to the church, but reduced for those who had little means.
The First Fruits, due to the natural multiplication of plants and animals on the land was usually owed to the lord.
The heriot was the tax for inheriting a fief from one’s father. It was the best animal on the fief.
Merchet was a matrimonial tax, especially if that marriage is outside the manor; typically (man or woman) 6d.
The mortuary tax was the second best animal, and was paid to the church for a funeral to help with the upkeep of the cemetery.
Banalities included 10% of beer brewed, wine pressed, grain ground, bread baked, etc.
Customary offerings at certain times included eggs, chickens, honey, wood, calves, lambs, etc. at Easter, Christmas, Martinmas etc.
The annual head tax was called chevage; in one area 10d was considered too heavy and was reduced to 2d.
Incident of wardship allows the lord to raise an underage heir in his own manor and choose his wife.
Incident of matrimony allows the lord to select the wife of a woman who inherits, or name the price to permit her to marry as she pleases.
Mortmain or main morte was a tax paid to the lord when the principal male of the manse died. Often, like the heriot, the best of each of the animals.
Market and Prices
Three bushels of corn sold for 2d at harvest, resold for more than 6d at market. This implies a mark-up of 300%, or if the market price be taken as the standard, the merchant buys for one third the price that he sells. Nearly half the gross grain went to market. There was 1 market per 25 mi2 in Leicestershire, 1 per 45(2) in Gloucestershire. A shipment of grain that sold for 225£ cost only 39£ to transport, so transport costs are about 17% of the final cost.
Some rents include (prices per year):
| 1 acre of arable |
5s |
| 1 acre of trees |
2.5s |
| 1 acre of meadow |
5s |
| 1 acre of meadow |
2s |
| grazing per acre in meadow |
6d |
| grazing per ox (non-meadow) |
6d |
| grazing per pig (non-meadow) |
4d |
| grazing per sheep (non-meadow) |
1.5d |
| 1 hide (120 acres of arable) |
40d + week work |
| 2 bovates (60 acres of arable) |
2-3s |
| 1 virgate (60 acres of arable) |
2s 1.5d + 3 days/week |
| 90 acres of arable |
2s 13d + ½ acre plowing and one day/week |
| 60 acres |
5s |
| 30 acres of woodlands |
994£ |
| taille (payment in kind for lord's needs) |
4d/head |
| woodland rent 1 acre |
4d |
Prices for Goods and services:
| 1 sheep |
8.5s |
| 1 sheep |
10.5s |
| wool from 1 sheep |
6.5s |
| milk summer price |
42d/cow |
| milk winter price (3x summer price) |
10d/cow |
| 1 cow and calf |
55s |
| day laborer |
1d |
| support for 1 worker in food for 1 year |
4£ |
| upkeep and wages for 1 worker for 1 year |
1£20s |
| 1 day of labor |
9d |
| seasonal harvester, day |
16-24d |
| week laborers |
8d |
| day vine dressers (male/female) |
5s/2s |
| woodcutter /day |
9-12d |
| mason / day |
15-18d |
| weeding 3 acres |
1d |
| hay making / acre |
4d |
| turn and raise |
1.5d/acre |
reap and bind corn
(5 men/2acres/day, so 1d/man/day) |
5d/acre |
| shoeing a horse |
1d/week |
| keep a horse per year, not incl. winter fodder |
12s5d |
| keep an ox per year, no winter fodder |
3s1d |
| bushel of oats (1 week horse food) |
6d |
| 1 summer hay for 1 horse |
12d |
| 1 bushel of wheat |
5d |
| 1 bushel of beans |
3d |
| 1 bushel of oats |
4d |
| mare |
8d |
| load of wood |
6d |
Commutations (1.5-2x value?)
| load of wood |
10d |
| rent for land (no other obligations) |
6d |
| work per day |
2d/head |
Some crimes
| cutting a tree without rights |
5s |
| misdemeanor |
5-7s |
| average fine |
30s/offender |
Interest on loans ran from 10 to 40%
Some taxes and tolls:
| transfer of land |
10% of sale |
| sale of mare |
4d from buyer and seller |
| live ox |
1d |
| live cow |
1f |
| 3 sheep |
1d |
| boar |
1d |
| 100 fleeces |
1d |
| horse to be sold: shod |
4d |
| shod donkey |
3d |
| shod mare |
2d |
| shod female donkey |
1d |
| unshod colt or filly |
1d |
| cart load of cloth |
4d |
| bale of madder (red cloth?) |
4d |
| cart load of peas |
4d |
| salmon |
1 of every 5 |
| shad |
1 of 100 |
| herring |
1 of 100 |
| cart of freshwater fish |
4d |
| wax or tallow |
1d/lump and 16d/100 lumps |
| cart load of wine or corn |
2d |
| hogshead of oil |
2d |
| millstone |
2d |
| cart load of goods |
4d |
| wagon load of goods |
8d
|
2.5% at borders of cities and 12.5% at the borders of the empire.
[1] Cited in McGarry, 1976.
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