Onkara Röddet
Introduction to the language
Phonetics
Vowels
Onkara Röddet has an eight vowel system and differentiates between a long and a short version of most of them. Here is an overview (in transcription) with the corresponding pronunciation in IPA (in brackets):
short | a (ɑ) | ä (æ) (rare) | e (e/allophone ɛ) | i (i) | o (ɔ) | ö (ø) | u (u) | y (y) |
long | á (ɑː) | æ (æː) | é (eː) | í (iː) | ó (ɔː) | œ (øː) | ú (uː) | ý (yː) |
Diphthongs
The vowels above can form three diphthongs which are considered to be of long quantity:
au (aʊ̯) | ei (ɛɪ̯) | ey (ɔʏ̯) |
Consonants
The consonants of Onkara Röddet are divided in two classes: obstruents and resonants. These fall into subclasses, with the obstruents being divided into plosives, fricatives and - to a very limited degree - affricates. Resonants are divided into nasals, liquids and semivowels. Whereas the plosives have a voiceless and aspirated version opposing an voiced and unaspirated version, some fricatives are voiced, others voiceless and resonants exist only as a voiced version. In addition some of the consonants can also be either labialised and/or palatalised.
Obstruents | |||
---|---|---|---|
class | voiced | voiceless | labialised or palatalised |
plosives | b, d, g | dv, gv, bj, dj, gj | |
p, t, k, ʔ | tv, kv, tj, kj, pj | ||
fricatives | ð | ||
þ, s, h, f | þv, þj, sv, sj, hv, hj | ||
affricates | z, x |
Resonants | ||
---|---|---|
class | voiced | labialised or palatalised |
nasals | m, n | mj, nj |
liquids | r, l | rj, lj |
semivowels | j, v |
Phonotactics, stress and alternations
Syllable structure
The syllable structure of Onkara Röddet is made up of three parts: onset [O], nucleus [N] and coda [K]. Of these, onset and nucleus are obligatory, the coda may be missing.
This leaves two possible syllable structures: [[O][N]] and [[O][N][K]]. There are specific rules as to how these parts can be occupied.
Onset:
The onset has to be taken by either a single consonant, semivowel or by a consonant cluster. In the written language in the runic script and the transcription there is no letter indicating the glottal stop. It is, however, the onset of every syllable that seemingly starts with a vowel. Otherwise the onset may be constructed as follows:
A single consonant with the exception of ð, but otherwise no restriction as to which consonant it can be (includes labialised and palatalised consonants). Examples: ók (and, also), tjá (dew)
A consonant cluster made up of two consonants with an initial non-palatalised and non-labialised obstruent followed by a resonant which may be palatalised. Examples: knjœ (knee), tré (wood)
A consonant cluster made up of two consonants with an initial s followed by p, t, k, m, n or l, which may be palatalised or labialised. Examples: spjú (foam, bubbles), slavr (slave)
A consonant cluster made up of two consonants with an initial h followed by a nasal or liquid which may be palatalised. Examples: hnéga (to kneel)
A consonant cluster made up of two consonants with an initial f followed by a liquid which may be palatalised. Example: frjár (free)
A consonant cluster made up of three consonants with an initial s followed by p, t or k followed by a nasal or liquid which may be palatalised. Example: sprjekk (pimple)
Nucleus:
The nucleus allows for a long or short vowel or a diphthong without any restrictions.
Coda:
The coda does not allow for palatalisation or labialisation. It may otherwise be taken by any single consonant except þ, h or ʔ.
The coda can also be a consonant cluster following certain rules:
A consonant cluster consisting of a nasal or liquid followed by any consonant except ʔ, þ or h. Example: fjölð (herd (of horses, sheep...)
When the cluster starts with n, only d, t, g, k, s, f, z or x may follow. Example: drank (beverage, potion)
When it starts with m, only d, t, b, p or z may follow. Example: imp (a small but dangerous subterranean creature)
A consonant cluster may also start with an obstruent other than ʔ, þ, x or z and be followed by s, r, l or n. Example: sums (sometimes, in parts, by/with some people)
Consonant clusters in the coda position can also be geminated dd, gg, pp, tt, kk, ss. Example: rödd (language)
A consonant cluster consisting of three consonants is either a nasal or liquid followed by any consonant except ʔ, þ or h followed by r or l or it is one of the geminated consonants followed by r or l. Examples: réttr (mediator, referee), gangl (chick, duckling)
Stress
Alternations
Apophonies:
One of the most prevalent features are the apophonies of which there are three:
The i-umlaut is the most prevalent form of the apophonies in Onkara Röddet as it affects the widest array of vowels. The general rule is, that some vowels followed by either i or its allophone j are fronted, resulting in a different vocalism. The i-umlaut is caused by the short as well as long version of the vowel. This may have occurred diachronically, leaving traces evidenced by the presence of reverse umlauts. In general the following vowels umlaut like this:
without i-umlaut | a | á | o | ó | u | ú |
with i-umlaut | e | æ | ö | œ | y | ý |
The second umlaut is the u-umlaut, which is also very common, though affecting a smaller array of vowels. As with i and j, the u-umlaut may also be caused by v, the allophone of u and by the long ú. Also comparable to the i-umlaut, the u-umlaut might have occured diachronically, potentially causing reverse umlauts in the current language. The following table shows the u-umlauts:
without u-umlaut | a | á | i |
with u-umlaut | ö | œ | y |
The third one is the a-umlaut, which occured diachronically and shows as a what seems to be an irregularity in some paradigms of inflectable words. Other than the name suggests, the a-umlaut can not only be caused by a and á, but also be caused by m or n following the affected vowels directly, but only if the nasal is either geminated or followed by an obstruent. The a-umlaut does not take place, if an a that would cause it is preceeded by a semivowel, which then overrides its effects. Only four vowels are affected, as shown here:
without a-umlaut | i | í | u | ú |
with a-umlaut | e | é | o | ó |
without breaking | e or é |
with breaking caused by a | ja |
with breaking caused by u | jö |
*The genitive of snjö is punctually irregular.
Epentheses, other insertions and elisions and articulatory approximations
n + l > ndl
n + r > ndr
m + f > mpf
m + s > mps
m + r > mbr
In nominative singular masculinum there is often the ending -r, causing an assimilation in three cases:
l + r > ll
n + r > nn
s + r > ss
In nominative singular femininum the characteristic -s-ending causes assimilations, too:
n + s > vowel lengthening + s
ð + s > ss
The nominative and accusative singular neutrum are characterised by an ending in -t which causes one assimilation:
n + t > tt
The three remaining, general assimilations include:
dental assimilations: ðð, dð, ðd > dd; ðt, tð > tt; dt, td > tt
velar assimilations: nk, gk > kk
approximating consonantic realisation: n + ð > nd
f + t > pt (irregular, depending on speaker/dialect)
Morphology
Nominals and adjacent parts of speech and their characteristics
The case system
Onkara Röddet has a case system consisting of six cases. Their functions and endings are shown here:
case | endings (sg. |du. |pl.) | functions |
nominative | -a, -r, -s, -t, -i, -u, -o, -∅ |-o, -e, -i, -é, -ó |-i, -r, -ir, -is, -ja, -és, -u, -∅ | agent of sentences in the active voice, patient of sentences in the passive voice |
genitive | -a, -é, -s, -és, -el, -ar, -á, -í, -i, -u |-ós, -ór, -ás, -ár, -jó, -já, -jé, -res, -ol |-a, -na, -ra | possession, quality, partitive, (seldom) direct object |
dative-locative | -a, -á, -i, -í, -ú, -u, -∅ |-mó, -má, -mé, -ró, -rá, -ré, -ú, -ó, -í |-ju, -jum, -jú, -júm, -ís, -ús | indirect object, benefit, harm, purpose, (seldom) agent, (seldom) direct object, place of existence or occurrence, point in time of existence or occurence |
accusative-allative | -a, -i, -an, -en, -in, -on, -un, -nen, -t, -u, -∅ |-a, -o, -e, -é, -sá, -só |-ár, -ír, -és, ós, -ús, -∅ | direct object, direction, stretch in time/space, relation, comparison |
ablative-instrumental | -a, -i, -að, -ad, -úð, -úd, -án, -ín, -ún, -u |-en, -én, -bjá, -bjé, -ðen, -ðan, -ten, -tan, óz, -áz, -éz |-ód, -úd, -íd, -ðaz, -taz, ðiz, -tiz, ðez, -tez | separation, origin, agent, instrument, cause, manner, (seldom) quality, (seldom) direct object |
vocative | -á, -é, -í |-a, -o, -e, -é |-rád, -réd, -ríd, -rás, -rés, -rís, -és | address |
Grammatical number
Grammatical gender
Grammatical gender is made up of four categories, which are used as follows:
gender | application |
---|---|
masculinum | exclusively reserved for male beings with the gift of reason, male fictitious characters, male gods and spirits and male animals |
femininum | exclusively reserved for female beings with the gift of reason, female fictitious characters, female gods and spirits and female animals |
utrum | exclusively used in singular for some collective nouns encompassing animate beings and duals or plurals for groups or pairs of beings with the gift of reason, fictitious characters, gods and spirits and animals with at least one male and one female or neutral in that group or pair and for religious experts in some circumstances |
neutrum | exclusively used for all concrete or abstract inanimate objects, some special collective nouns encompassing animate beings as well and beings with the gift of reason, fictitious characters, gods or spirits and animals that cannot be assigned a gender or don't want to be assigned a gender and for religious experts in some circumstances |
Noun
Nouns fall into two declension classes: strong and weak. Characteristic of the strong declension class is the variety of endings throughout the whole paradigm, whereas the weak declension class only shows a limited amount of endings, most often with the nominative as the one form differing from the others in the singular. Always with neutra, sometimes with feminina the accusative is identical to the nominative. In dual and plural the case is more complicated with dual forms sharing the same vocalism and weak plural forms sharing the same ending in the nominative, accusative and vocative.
The declension classes have several paradigms, depending on the stem-ending vowel or consonant (which often has been lost diachronically).
strong a-stems (masculine and neutral nouns)
Examples: bóbr (m., boy), lauk (n., plot of land)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | bób-r |lauk- | bób-o |lauk-o | bœb-i |lauk-r |
genitive | bób-s |lauk-s | bób-ór |lauk-ór | bób-a |lauk-a |
dative-locative | bœb-í |lauk-í | bób-ró |lauk-ró | bób-ís |lauk-ís |
accusative-allative | bób-an |lauk-an | bób-o |lauk-o | bób-ár |lauk-r |
ablative-instrumental | bób-að |lauk-at | bób-ðan |lauk-tan | bœb-íd |lauk-íd |
vocative | bób-á |lauk-á | bób-o |lauk-o | bób-rás |lauk-rás |
strong o-stems (feminine)
Examples: meit (f., girl), kvenn (f., woman)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | meit- |kvenn- | meit-o |kvenn-o | meit-és |kvenn-és |
genitive | meit-ar |kvenn-ar | meit-ós |kvenn-ós | meit-a |kvenn-a |
dative-locative | meit-á |kvenn-á | meit-ó |kvenn-ó | meit-jum |kvenn-jum |
accusative-allative | meit-on |kvenn-on | meit-só (> meizó)| kvenn-só (> kvenzó) |
meit-és |kvenn-és |
ablative-instrumental | meit-ad |kvenn-að | meit-tan |kvenn-tan | meit-ód |kvenn-ód |
vocative | meit-á |kvenn-á | meit-o |kvenn-o | meit-és |kvenn-és |
strong u-stems (feminine, utrum and neutral)
Examples: œs^ (f., female sheep), fjölð* (u., herd of horses, sheep, cattle or goats), fjó^ (n., cattle, wealth, movable property)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | œ-s |fjölð- |fjó- | é |felð-i |fjœ | œ |fjölð-u |fjó- |
genitive | á-r |fjalð-ar |fjó-s° | á-s |fjalð-ás |fjó-ás | á-na |fjalð-na (> fjalna)+ |fjó-na |
dative-locative | œ |fjölð-ú |fjó | œ |fjölð-ú |fjó | é-jum |felð-jum |fjœ-jum |
accusative-allative | œ-n |fjölð-un |fjó- | á-só |fjölð-só (> fjölzó) |fjó-só |
œ-s |fjölð-ús |fjó- |
ablative-instrumental | œ |fjölð-ú |fjó- | á-ðan |fjölð-ðan (> fjölðan) |fjó-ðan |
œ-d |fjölð-úd |fjó-úd (> fjód) |
vocative | á |fjalð-á | fjó-á | á |fjalð-á| fjó-á | é-s |felð-és |fjó-rés |
*fjölð shows the typical examples of breaking with endings containing i (or its allophone j) cancelling the effects of original u and endings beginning with a (or á) overriding the u-breaking with an a-breaking
°neutral u-stems ending in a vowel form the genitive singular with -s instead of -ar in analogy to the a-stems
+the a-breaking here is an irregularity and might have resulted as a form of analogy from nasals sometimes causing a-breaking (for the rules see above)
strong i-stems (masculine, feminine and utrum)
Examples: egilir (m., (constricting) snake), egilis (f., (venomous) snake), gleimi (u., a kind of religious specialist)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | egili-r |egili-s |gleimi- | egilj-o |egilj-é |gleimj-e | egilj-és |egilj-és |gleimj-és |
genitive | egili-s |egilj-ar |gleimj-u | egilj-ós |egilj-ór |gleimi-res | egilj-a |egili-na |gleimi-na |
dative-locative | egilj-ú |egilj-á |gleimi-í (>gleimí) | egilj-ó |egilj-ó |gleimi-ré | egili-ís (>egilís) |egilj-ús |gleimj-ús |
accusative-allative | egili-in (>egilín) |egili-in (>egilín) |gleimi- | egilj-on |egilj-é |gleimj-e | egilj-és |egilj-és |gleimj-és |
ablative-instrumental | egilj-ún |egilj-án |gleimi-ín (>gleimín) | egili-ðan |egili-ðen |gleimi-bjé | egili-íd (>egilíd) |egilj-úd |gleimj-úd |
vocative | egili-í (>egilí) |egilj-é |gleimi-í (>gleimí) | egilj-o |egili-é |gleimj-e | egilj-és |egilj-és |gleimj-és |
strong guttural and dental consonant stems (utrum and neutrum)
Examples: flokk (u., swarm of birds or other flying vertebrates), pott (n., pot)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | flokk- |pott- | flokk-o |pott-o | flökk-r |pött- |
genitive | flokk-u |pott-s | flokk-jó |pott-jó | flokk-ra |pott-na |
dative-locative | flökk-í |pött-í | flokk-ó |pott-ó | flökk-júm |pött-júm |
accusative-allative | flokk- |pott- | flokk-só |pott-só | flokk-ós |pött- |
ablative-instrumental | flökk-ín |pött-ín | flokk-tan |pott-tan | flokk-ód |pott-ód |
vocative | flokk-á |pött-í | flokk-o |pott-o | flokk-rás |pott-és |
weak a-stems (neutrum)
Example: lunga (n., lung)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | lung-a | lung-é | lyng-i |
genitive | lung-a | lyng-jé | lung-a |
dative-locative | lung-a | lung-ré | lyng-ís |
accusative-allative | lung-a | lung-é | lung-ár |
ablative-instrumental | lung-a | lung-én | lyng-íd |
vocative | lung-á | lung-é | lung-rás |
weak i-stems (utrum and neutrum)
Examples: þýðja (u., people, inhabitants), gær (n., clothes, attire)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | þýðj-a |gær- | þýðj-é |gær-é | þýðj-és |gær- |
genitive | þýð-i |gærj-a | þýðj-jé (>þýðjé) |gær-jé | þýði-na |gær-na |
dative-locative | þýð-i |gærj-a | þýð-ré |gær-ré | þýðj-ús |gær-júm |
accusative-allative | þýð-i |gær- | þýðj-é |gær-é | þýðj-és |gær- |
ablative-instrumental | þýð-i |gærj-a | þýðj-én |gærj-én | þýðj-úd |gærj-úd |
vocative | þýð-í |gærj-á | þýðj-é |gærj-é | þýðj-és |gærj-és |
weak sigmatic and dental consonant stems (masculine, feminine, utrum, neutral)
Examples: bœndi (m., farmer), kleymunda (f., victress), þómps (u., a special kind of jury), hemps (n., winter, storm)
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | bœnd-i |kleymund-a |þómps- |hemps- | bónd-o |kleymund-o |þómps-é |hemps-é | bónd-és |kleymund-és |þómps-u |hjömps-u |
genitive | bónd-a |kleymund-u |þómps-u |hjamps-a | bónd-ór |kleymund-ós |þómps-jé |hemps-jé | bónd-na |kleymund-na |þómps-na |hjamps-na |
dative-locative | bónd-a |kleymund-u |þómps-u |hjamps-a | bónd-ró |kleymund-ó |þómps-ré (>þómpstré) |hemps-ré (>hempstré) |
bœnd-ju |kleymynd-ju |þómps-ju |hemps-ju |
accusative-allative | bónd-a |kleymund-u |þómps-u |hemps- | bónd-o |kleymund-só (> kleymunzó) |þómps-é |hemps-é |
bónd-ús |kleymund-és |þómps-ár |hjömps-u |
ablative-instrumental | bónd-a |kleymund-u |þómps-u |hjamps-a | bónd-tan (> bóntan) |kleymund-tan (> kleymuntan) |þómps-én |hemps-én |
bónd-ód |kleymynd-íd |þómps-úd |hjömps-úd |
vocative | bœnd-í |kleymund-á |þómps-á |hjamps-á | bónd-o |kleymund-o |þómps-é |hemps-é | bónd-rés |kleymund-rés | þómps-rés (>þómpstrés) |hemps-rés (>hempstrés) |
The article
case | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
nominative | (h)er |(h)es |(h)et | (d/t)ö |(d/t)ó |(d/t)ö | (i)sir |(i)sis |(i)sja |
genitive | (h)és |(h)é |(h)és | (d/t)ojá |(d/t)ojó |(d/t)ojá | (i)ssa |(i)ssa |(i)ssa |
dative-locative | (h)a |(h)jö |(h)a | (d/t)omá |(d/t)omó |(d/t)omá | (i)sju |(i)sju |(i)sju |
accusative-allative | (h)en |(h)enen |(h)et | (d/t)va |(d/t)ó |(d/t)ö | (i)sír |(i)sír |(i)sja |
ablative-instrumental | (h)að |(h)öð |(h)að | (d/t)váz |(d/t)óz |(d/t)váz | (i)stiz |(i)stiz |(i)staz |
Adjectives
Paradigm for the strong inflection of adjectives
case and number | masculine | feminine | utrum | neutrum |
---|---|---|---|---|
nominative sg. | ang-r véð-r* spá-r |
ang- víð- spá- |
öng-~ ýð- spá- |
ang-t víð-t (> vítt) spá-t |
genitive sg. | ang-s véð-s spá-s |
ang-ar véð-ar spá-sar^ |
öngv-ar ýðv-ar spá-r |
ang-s víð-s spá-s |
dative-locative sg. | eng-í víð-í spá-rí° |
ang-á véð-á spá-sá |
öng-ú ýð-ú spá-dú# |
eng-í víð-í spá-tí% |
accusative-allative sg. | ang-an véð-an spá-ran |
ang-on víð-on spá-son |
öng-un ýð-un spá-dun |
ang-t víð-t (> vítt) spá-t |
ablative-instrumental sg. | ang-ad véð-ad spá-rad |
ang-að véð-að spá-sað |
öng-ú ýð-ú spá-dú |
ang-at véð-at spá-tat |
vocative sg. | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX |
nominative pl. | eng-ir víð-ir spá-rir |
ang-és víð-és spá-sés |
öng-u ýð-u spá-du |
eng-r+ víð-r spá-r |
genitive pl. | ang-ra véð-ra spá-ra |
ang-a véð-a spá-sa |
ang-na véð-na spá-na |
eng-a víð-a spá-ta |
dative-locative pl. | eng-jum víð-jum spá-jum |
eng-jum víð-jum spá-jum |
eng-jum víð-jum spá-jum |
eng-jum víð-jum spá-jum |
accusative-allative pl. | ang-ár véð-ár spá-rár |
ang-és víð-és spá-sés |
öng-ús ýð-ús spá-dús |
eng-r víð-r spá-r |
ablative-instrumental pl. | ang-ðaz véð-ðaz (>véðaz) spá-ðaz |
ang-ód víð-ód spá-sód |
öng-úd ýð-úd spá-dúd |
eng-íd víð-íd spá-tíd |
vocative pl. | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX |
°The masculine declension inserts a r in front of an ending starting with a vowel/diphthong.
~Adjectives in utrum show an u-umlaut if possible for historical reasons. Utra even conserved the umlaut-causing u as the allophone v in front of endings starting with a vowel. Otherwise the umlaut is overridden if possible. %Adjectives in neutrum show no diachronic, only synchronic umlaut in singular and insert a t in front of endings starting with a vowel.
+Adjectives in neutrum plural always show an i-umlaut if possible that can never be overridden by a vowel of the ending.
Paradigm for the weak inflection of adjectives
Examples: angr (daunting, intimidating), véðr (wide, spacious), spár (foreboding, auspicious)
case | masculine | feminine | utrum | neutrum |
---|---|---|---|---|
nominative sg. | ang-i víð-i spá-ri |
ang-a véð-a spá-ra |
ang- véð- spá- |
ang- véð- spá- |
genitive sg. | ang-a véð-a spá-ra |
öng-u ýð-u spá-su |
öng-u ýð-u spá-du |
ang-a véð-a spá-ta |
dative-locative sg. | ang-a véð-a spá-ra |
öng-u ýð-u spá-su |
öng-u ýð-u spá-du |
ang-a véð-a spá-ta |
accusative-allative sg. | ang-a véð-a spá-ra |
öng-u ýð-u spá-su |
öng-u ýð-u spá-du |
ang- víð- spá- |
ablative-instrumental sg. | ang-a véð-a spá-ra |
öng-u ýð-u spá-su |
öng-u ýð-u spá-du |
ang-a véð-a spá-ta |
nominative pl. | ang-és víð-és spá-rés |
ang-és víð-és spá-sés |
öng-u ýð-u spá-du |
öng-u ýð-u spá-tu |
genitive pl. | ang-na véð-na spá-na |
ang-na véð-na spá-na |
ang-na véð-na spá-na |
ang-na véð-na spá-na |
dative-locative pl. | eng-ju víð-ju spá-ju |
eng-ju víð-ju spá-ju |
eng-ju víð-ju spá-ju |
eng-ju víð-ju spá-ju |
accusative-allative pl. | öng-ús ýð-ús spá-rús |
ang-és víð-és spá-sés |
öng-u ýð-u spá-du |
öng-u ýð-u spá-tu |
ablative-instrumental pl. | ang-ód víð-ód spá-ród |
eng-íd víð-íd spá-síd |
öng-úd ýð-úd spá-dúd |
öng-úd ýð-úd spá-túd |
Comparison
Verbs
Grammatical categories of verbs
form | ending and inflexion | function / use |
---|---|---|
infinitive present | -a no inflexion, except the accompanying article |
lexical verb in conjunction with auxiliar verbs after verbs that demand an infinitive predicate in an accusativus cum infinitivo noun (if preceeded by an article) |
infinitive preterite | -esa no inflexion, except the accompanying article |
lexical verb in conjunction with auxiliar verbs after verbs that demand an infinitive predicate in an accusativus cum infinitivo noun (if preceeded by an article) |
present active participle |
-nd-i /-nd-a / -nd- /-nd- inflexion follows the weak adjectives or weak dental stems of nouns |
lexical verb in conjunction with auxiliar verbs noun adjective |
preterite passive participle |
-(e)d/t-r inflexion follows the strong adjectives |
lexical verb in conjunction with auxiliar verbs noun adjective |
Example: laustrum - 3. pers. pl. ind. pres. imperf. act. (from 'laustra' - to listen to, to hearken)
Functions of the respective categories
Person deixis
Number
Mode
Tense
Aspect
Voice
The mediopassive voice has four distinct functions.
(1) It can express the passive voice, when the subject of the sentence is the patient of the verbal action.
(2) It can be used to show reflexiveness of the verbal action with it having an effect on the subject of the sentence itself.
(3) The mediopassive voice also functions to express reciprocity, when the subject are two or more individuals or groups affecting each other with the verbal action.
(4) In conjunction with a noun in dative case it is used to stress someone or something as the beneficiary of an action.
(5) A group of mostly intransitive verbs always has the mediopassive voice but the verb is always used as if it were in the active voice.
All these cases will be discussed in the syntax section as well.
Conjugation classes
Class I - weak verbs:
Class II - strong verbs:
Class III - preterite-presents:
Class IV - irregular verbs:
Paradigm of the imperfective present active endings for classes I, II and parts of IV
pres. impf. act. | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
ind. 1st | -m/-am | -vés/-œs | -mr/-umr |
ind. 2nd | -r/-ar | -tás/-ás | -ð/-uð |
ind. 3rd | -t/-at/-∅ | -tés/-és | -n/-un |
opt. 1st | (i)-m/(i)-im | (i)-vís/(i)-ís | (i)-mr/(i)-imr |
opt. 2nd | (i)-r/(i)-ir | (i)-tjás/(i)-jás | (i)-ð/(i)-ið |
opt. 3rd | (i)-t/(i)-it/(i)-∅ | (i)-tjés/(i)-jés | (i)-n/-(i)-in |
imp. 1st | XXX | XXX | XXX |
imp. 2nd | -∅ | -tós/-ós | -ð/-uð |
imp. 3rd | -to/-eto | XXX | -ten/-eten |
Paradigm of the perfective present active endings for classes I, II and parts of IV
pres. pf. act. | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
ind. 1st | -úm/-súm/-kúm | -ós/-sós/-kós | -ú/-sú/-kú |
ind. 2nd | -as/-sas/-kas | -ons/-sons/-kons | -að/-sað/-kað |
ind. 3rd | -at/-sat/-kat | -és/-sés/-kés | -er/-ser/-ker |
opt. 1st | (i)-in/(i)-sin/(i)-kin | (i)-ýs/(i)-sýs/(i)-kýs | (i)-ý/(i)-sý/(i)-ký |
opt. 2nd | (i)-es/(i)-ses/(i)-kes | (i)-jós/(i)-sjós/(i)-kjós | (i)-eð/(i)-seð/(i)-keð |
opt. 3rd | (i)-it/(i)-sit/(i)-kit | (i)-jés/(i)-sjés/(i)-kjés | (i)-jer/(i)-sjer/(i)-kjer |
imp. 1st | XXX | XXX | XXX |
imp. 2nd | -∅ | -óse/-sóse/-kóse | -að/-sað/-kað |
imp. 3rd | -ato/-sato/-kato | XXX | -ar/-sar/-kar |
Paradigm of the imperfective preterite active endings for classes I, II and parts of IV
pret. impf. act. | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
ind. 1st | -n/-en | -∅/-o | -um/-mum |
ind. 2nd | -s/-es | -mos/-os | -muð/-umuð |
ind. 3rd | -∅/-e | -és/-sés/-kés | -n/-en |
opt. 1st | (i)-∅ | (i)-é | (i)-im/(i)-mim |
opt. 2nd | (i)-ir | (i)-œs/(i)-mœs | (i)-ið/(i)-ðið |
opt. 3rd | (i)-i | (i)-ís/(i)-mís | (i)-∅ |
Paradigm of the perfective preterite active endings for classes I, II and parts of IV
pret. pf. act. | singular | dual | plural |
---|---|---|---|
ind. 1st | -ké/-ré -sé/-é |
-ko/-ro -so/-o |
-kom/-rom -som/-om |
ind. 2nd | -ket/-ret -set/-et |
-kós/-rós -sós/-ós |
-koð/-roð -soð/-oð |
ind. 3rd | -ke/-re -se/-e |
-kas/-ras -sas/-as |
-ké/-ré -sé/-é |
opt. 1st | (i)-kim/(i)-rim (i)-sim/(i)-im |
(i)-kö/(i)-rö (i)-sö/(i)-ö |
(i)-kem/(i)-rem (i)-sem/(i)-em |
opt. 2nd | (i)-kis/(i)-ris (i)-sis/(i)-is |
(i)-kœs/(i)-rœs (i)-sœs/(i)-œs |
(i)-keð/(i)-reð (i)-seð/(i)-eð |
opt. 3rd | (i)-kí/(i)-rí (i)-sí/(i)-í |
(i)-kes/(i)-res (i)-ses/(i)-es |
(i)-kí/(i)-rí (i)-sí/(i)-í |
You seem to have a well devoped grammar, but what would be interesting to read about would be how the language reflects the culture of its speakers. Are there specific categories of words that are important and thus more developed, patterns of polite speech, dialects that reflect the history of the language or things like that?
I am not done with this article yet, but after working on it for a few days straight I was not in the mood to add 7 or 8 more tables for pronouns and verbs. Those will be added later (from February on) as well as information on vocabulary, register and examples as well as some inscriptions, to give material and cultural context. :)
A current addition to Samthô is my contribution to the rivers ant waterways challenge: Paunis