Jauhar: Immolation of the Chaste

Be it so. This burning of wives and sisters and mothers and daughters is your custom; prepare the funeral pile. But my Empire has also a custom. When men burn women alive we hang them and confiscate all their property. My carpenters shall therefore erect gibbets on which to hang all concerned when the woman is consumed. Let us all act according to imperial customs.

—Emperor Shalishuka, when debating the ethics of Jauhar with Emperor Khosrau.

History

Jauhar is inordinately controversial—unsurprising, considering it ordains mass immolation as an acceptable demonstration of self-preservation. Historians today vigorously debate the origins of Jauhar. The majority concludes it is plausibly sourced from the mythological Trial by Fire; heroines of folklore proved their purity by emerging unscathed from honourary funeral pyres. A woman acknowledged by the gods as impure or blemished would burn, thereby initiating her funeral. Others surmise Jauhar developed from stories of divine retribution: deceitful women were incinerated by the purifying gaze of the gods. Mythology describes mortal women experiencing divine transmutations by fire, elevated to godhood when stepping into a ceremonial fire. Strangely, these accounts are not reflected in the practice of Jauhar; women are not fortified by fire but dissolved by self-preservation. Regardless of its origins, Jauhar crystallizes an overabundance of misguided faith in chastity without accurately defining the parameters of chastity.
Pre-Kushan civilizations liberally practised and endorsed polygamy, celebrating the freedom of reproduction intrinsic to nature. Today, this approach to coupling is labelled terribly unorthodox by priests and laity alike. However, these civilizations never documented formidable disputes of property; inheritors were nominated by householders or landowners, while non-inheritors were compensated. It was only when the late Pre-Kushan philosopher Manu witnessed his mother copulating with another man that the impetus for marriage developed. Manu postulated that he could not confidently identify his father, as his mother may have copulated with numerous men. Thus, nominating inheritors was unfairly arbitrary. If men and women were bound exclusively, the eldest child would inherit his father's property. Manu and his disciples elaborated his postulates in the Manava Shastra, or Code of Mortals. Centuries later, this aggregate text would lay the foundation for the Kushan Empires, with the Manava Dharmashastra or Code of Mortal Law memorialized independently of its parent code.
The aggregate nature of the Code of Mortal Law compromises its reliability and authenticity. The code is riddled with contradictions; subsequent philosophers expanded on Manu's teachings, each interpreting his tenets individually. Treatises on chastity are abundant but frustratingly disparate: some solidify chastity as an inextinguishable spiritual pursuit; others determine chastity is freedom and liberty; others still declare chastity a measurable, empirical quality deserving of public scrutiny. It is the second classification which is harmonious with anteceding analyses of chastity. Philosophers before Manu extolled the autonomy of mortals, celebrating chastity as the consequence of unimpeded but favourable choice. As the imperial seedlings developed, the definition of chastity tightened. Now, Manu's treaty was acknowledged as paramount; autonomy deserved respect but societal hierarchies deserved preservation.
Interestingly, chastity has never demonstrated a correlation with virginity. In fact, premarital sex is not considered taboo; coitus without copulation is a mortal right, a celebration of spiritual unions. Manu describes chastity as undying, unblemished loyalty and self-vigilance when engaging in circumstances where loyalty is endangered. His association of the feminine with female and masculine with male inspired his verdict that the chastity of women superseded the chastity of men. Therefore, women deserved higher degrees of scrutiny. The religions of today survived the fall of the Pre-Kushan civilizations and Kushan Empires, experiencing massive overhauls but preserving identifiable edicts. Among those is the conceptualization of the feminine as material and masculine as spiritual. Manu then proposes the material reality of the feminine (woman) is more susceptible to damage and deterioration. It is the body which ages and decomposes, while the spirit transcends. Furthermore, the spirit is dependent on the body; the body requires immense care and preservation.
Neither Manu nor his disciples advocated sacrifice, but they adamantly endorsed the prioritization of chastity. If a woman found her chastity endangered, she was to pursue an immediate remedy. If this safekeeping required a sacrifice, she was not to be frightened of death. Plausibly, the origins of Jauhar are rooted in the teachings of Manu and his restructuring of mythology. He is indeed celebrated for inspiring the men and women who built the Kushan Empires, but he is criticized by scholars for flagrantly misinterpreting popular myths. Perhaps his most egregious misinterpretation is the Immolation of Sati: the myth details the transcendence of Sati, goddess of marital felicity and longevity; ridiculed and disavowed by her father Daksha for her ascetic husband, she realizes her position as the Supreme Godhead and abandons her material form, later smiting Daksha for his insolence. The immense radiance of her realized identity immolates Sati. Manu physically rewrote the Immolation of Sati, titling it the Self-Immolation of Sati. Here, he describes how Sati respectfully invokes Agni, the god of fire, to spare her from further ridicule. She chants her husband's name, sacrificing herself to preserve his honour. In his restructuring, Manu explicitly lauds self-immolation as a respectable solution to endangered chastity.
Jauhar was fully realized when incursions into imperial territories became frequent. If defeat was imminent, wives of warriors convened at temples and immolated themselves by lighting pyres. Gradually, esteemed households installed Jauhar Pits; these large, deep square pits were ignited, and wives jumped into the fire. Eventually, Jauhar developed as a grim expectation, with entire settlements witnessing the self-immolation of chaste women. Today, every fort contains at least four Jauhar Pits, demonstrating the longevity of the practice despite its controversial nature. Jauhar is not an antiquated act of barbarity; 48 years ago, when Rajarajeshwari Jwalamukhi Koyikal Gandhara II wrestled control of the Gandhara Empire from incumbent Emperor Pushyapala, his wives and daughters committed Jauhar alongside handmaidens and other women of his royal family.

Execution

Originally, the sporadic occurrences of Jauhar owed to its hasty organization. Women ignited multiple pyres, immolating themselves as quickly as possible. The inescapable prominence of war guaranteed every woman needed to consider Jauhar as a plausible strategy. Thus, Jauhar Pits developed as public works and labourers found themselves building their wives' funeral pyre. Jauhar Pits are rare in villages; if they exist, they are invariably crude replicas. Towns customarily contain one Pit, whereas cities contain at least two. Forts always contain at least four Jauhar Pits, accommodating women from nearby settlements without a Pit. Each Jauhar Pit is positioned securely, away from major thoroughfares and obvious targets.
Women who commit Jauhar are expected to demonstrate valiance and pride. Fear sullies a woman's chastity, compromising her transcendence; she must have the composure of a warrior. Each woman is garbed and ornamented like a bride, boasting heavy jewellery and vibrant colours. The most esteemed woman (such as the village head's wife, a noblewoman, or a queen) carries an embroidered tapestry depicting the courage and sacrifice of previous men and women. The esteemed woman leads the procession; each participant circumambulates the Jauhar Pit seven times using elaborate walkways. This journey mirrors the seven steps circumambulated during her marriage, thereby reinforcing her stalwart loyalty to her husband. Extolling the gods is required before a woman can commit Jauhar; often, war goddesses are invoked to suffuse the women with fearlessness. Then, women collectively leap into the flames, immolating themselves.

Components and tools

Jauhar Pits are commonplace but they are not mandatory. Village women commit Jauhar using funeral pyres or igniting small buildings and locking themselves inside. The Pits are always at least 15 feet deep, thereby preventing escape. If the women of a settlement or fort cannot reach the nearest Jauhar Pit, they emulate the Jauhar of village women. Often, such acts of Jauhar are performed in the harem or bedchambers. Most forts build Jauhar Gardens as contingencies: square arrangements of coal overlap, allowing for a conflagration accommodating each woman.
Coal lines the bottom of Jauhar Pits, supplemented by arcane accelerants if they are affordable or available. If at least a quarter of the participants are capable of weaving magic, they ignite the Pits. Otherwise, Torchbearers drop torches into the Jauhar Pits. The fire is as important as the participants: it serves to remove impurities, cleanse souls, and reinvigorate chastity. The remains of the women are never collected as each generation must join their ancestors.

Participants

Only women can commit Jauhar, and only women are permitted to witness Jauhar. Eunuchs may accompany participants but they cannot engage in the practice; instead, eunuchs must protect women from threats, such as the invading armies. Each procession is led by the Herald of History: the most esteemed woman carries an elaborate tapestry honouring the sacrifices of previous men and women. She is the first to leap into the Jauhar Pit or walk into the Jauhar Garden or sit on the pyre. The Herald of History is followed dutifully by Torchbearers, those women responsible for carrying the flames of purification. Esoteric Torchbearers use magic whereas Exoteric Torchbearers use torches. After the Herald of History commits Jauhar, the remaining women follow collectively.